Baroque And Classical Music Essay Research Paper free essay sample

Baroque And Classical Music Essay, Research Paper Part 1: Music of the Late Baroque ( 1700-1750 ) Italian opera was composed all over Europe. Metastasio was a celebrated librettist who supplied Italian opera narratives to composers of the late Baroque and authoritative periods.Two of Handel # 8217 ; s best-known Italian operas are Giulio Cesare and Rodelinda.The Italian metropolis to the South of Rome that became the trendsetting centre of opera was Naples. Two celebrated composers that worked there were Leonardo Vinci and Leonardo Leo.When Handel came to Italy he worked chiefly in the metropolis of Rome.A choral work from his Italian period was his Dixit Dominus. The Dixit, every bit good as the Magnificat belonged to the liturgical service known as the Roman Catholic and Anglican Vesper Services.Handel # 8217 ; s best known cantata in English is The Messiah. Two of his other cantatas with English texts are Judas Maccabaeus and Israel in Egypt. We will write a custom essay sample on Baroque And Classical Music Essay Research Paper or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Handel besides wrote instrumental music in the Italian manner, notably two sets of concerti grossi. Another composer, an Italian, who wrote many concerti grossi in England and besides reworked music by Corelli to add to his repertory was Vivaldi. London # 8217 ; s Royal Academy of Music was non a music school. The intent of the society was to steadfastly set up Italian opera in London. Two Like Bach and Telemann in Germany, Vivaldi was in charge of music at a church school. Vivaldi # 8217 ; s school was called the Pio Ospedale della Pieta. He wrote concertos for so many different instruments because of the assortment of endowments represented among the pupil organic structure. J.S. Bach transcribed some of these plants for himself to play at the cembalo. However, Vivaldi # 8217 ; s best known set of concerti is for fiddle and is called La Stravaganza. Vivaldi besides wrote rather a spot of church music. Vivaldi # 8217 ; s better known choral composings include the Magnificat, Gloria, and Vesperss. Three . When reading about Johann Sebastian Bach we often hear about Erdmann Neumeister. In add-on to act uponing Bach, Neumeister was besides much admired by Telemann. Erdmann composed spiritual poesy and 9 rhythms of oratorio texts, some of which were used by Telemann. Telemann # 8217 ; s best known music today is his chamber music, including the Paris Fours and his Tafelmusik. Four Before Bach # 8217 ; s clip, the dance suite consisted of a great figure of motions, and we think that non all of them were to be used in every public presentation. By Bach # 8217 ; s clip, nevertheless, the signifier was standardized into a set of five dances they were allemade, courante, sarabande, jig, and gavotte. Sometimes they used non the Gallic term suite, but the Italian term partita. Compared to his coevalss, Bach published really small music during his life-time. Works that were published included, the Art of the Fugue, 3 Partitas and 3 Sonatas for unaccompanied fiddle, the Well-Tempered Clavier, the Goldberg Variations, and the Brandenburg Concerti. Rameau contributed greatly to the development of Music Theory. Rameau contributed greatly to the development of Music Theory. Rameau believed music was a scientific discipline, and wrote the Traite de lharmonie this deals with the basic elements and natural philosophies behind music as we know it. Rameau besides wrote some fantastic operatic music, such as Hippolyte et Aricie and Castor et Pollux. Part II: Music of the Classical Time period I Two of the great political events of that clip were the Gallic and American Revolutions. A 3rd great political vitamin E blowhole toward the terminal of the classical period was Congress of Vienna. When discoursing musical facets of the classical period the term sonata principal is frequently used. It is a motion in sonata signifier that is portion of a larger work. Composers # 8217 ; affinity for subito pianos and sforzandos can be explained as influence from the dramatic humanistic disciplines. The term associated with such dramatic volatility is known in German as Sturm und Drang and is translated as Storm and Stress. Bologna and Paris set the manner for Baroque orchestral music. During the Authoritative period the tendency compositor was a German metropolis called Vienna. F.J. Haydn was employed for the bulk of his productive life by a princely household called Esterhazy. His international success was assured by two visits to London. He was asked to come to London by J.P. Solomon, where he wrote 12 symphonic musics. Aside from a sum of 104 symphonic musics, Haydn wrote several fantastic plants for big choir with orchestra. Four plants are The Creation, The Seasons. Mass in the Time of War, The Return of Tobias. Two Mozart was a true kid of the authoritative age. His full name ( Johannes Chrysostamos Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart ) can certify to that. Mozart had a really gifted sister. Her name was Maria Anna, and she played the piano. In their young person they traveled together. Two Italian composers who influenced Mozart a great trade were Martini and Thomas Linley. When immature Mozart visited London, he was introduced to London # 8217 ; s most respected composer of the clip, Franz Joseph Haydn. Mozart wrote music for 21 plants for the phase, but his best-known operas are the last five. Die Zauberflote, Le Nozze de Figaro, Die Entfuhrung Cosi Fan Tutte, and Don Giovanni. For three of them he collaborated with the librettist Emmanuel Schiknader. Although Haydn was old plenty to be Mozart # 8217 ; s instructor, they treated each other as co-workers with a great trade of regard for each other # 8217 ; s work. The best cogent evidence of that fact can be seen in the foreword to some of their publications ; they dedicated many of their twine fours to each other. Since Mozart seldom used opus Numberss, and did non maintain path of his composings really good, the undertaking of cataloging his work fell to Kochel. Similarly, the plants of Dominico Scarlatti were cataloged twice, one time by Longo and one time by Kirkpatrick. Today # 8217 ; s publications typically show both totaling systems. Three Two of import German playwrights at the clip of Beethoven were Schiller and Goethe. Beethoven used texts, or gained inspiration from both of them. Schiller inspired portion of the 9th Symphony, Goethe inspired music for Egmont. Beethoven often went against convention. As a affair of fact, his symphonic audiences waited for what Beethoven might make next. He wrote a funeral March in the 3rd symphonic music. The scherzo was in forepart of the slow motion in the 9th. In the fifth symphonic music a span connects the 3rd and 4th motions. Program music is usually associated with later romantic composers, but Beethoven foreshadowed that tendency by composing a wholly programmatic symphonic music, the 6th. The narrative is covered throughout five motions: mvt I # 8211 ; Awakening of pleasant feelings, II # 8211 ; scene by the creek, III- Happy assemblage of state common people, IV- the electrical storm, V -Shepherds song the grateful feelings after the storm. He was often encouraged to compose opera, but he wrote merely one. He finally called it Fidelio, even though when he foremost worked on it, he called it Leonore. 33e

All About the French Adverb Comment

All About the French Adverb Comment The French adverb comment is one of the most common in the language. It means how or what and can function as an  interrogative or exclamative adverb. In conversation, you may use this word to ask someones name or to clarify your understanding. It can even be used as a means of expressing incredulity at something youve heard or read. Usage Comment is the French equivalent of how. Here are some examples: Comment vas-tu?   How are you? (Literally, how are you going?)Comment as-tu fait à §a?  How did you do that? With à ªtre, comment means what is ___ like? Comment est-il?  Ã‚  Whats he like?Comment est ta maison?  Ã‚  What is your house like? It also can be  used to ask someones name: Comment tappelles-tu?   Whats your name?Comment sappelle-t-elle?   What is her name? Comment is also used to say what? when you didnt hear or cant believe something:   Philippe est mort.   Philippe is dead.Comment?  Ã‚  What? It is found in a few simple exclamative constructions: Tu as bien mangà ©? Et comment!  Ã‚  Did you eat well? And how! I sure did! I should say so!Comment donc!  Ã‚  Of course! By all means! Exceptions There are a number of uses of how in English that are not translated by comment in French. For instance: How about (we do something)?   Et si  (on fait quelque chose)?How about you? Et toi?How about that! Ça alors!How big/long/tall is it/he? Combien mesure-t-il?How come?   Pourquoi  ? (or Comment à §a se fait?)How far is ___? ___ est quelle distance  ? ___ est combien?How much/many? Combien?How much is it / does it cost? Combien à §a coà »te?How old are you? Quel à ¢ge as-tu?to know how to do something   savoir  faire quelque chose

Contemporary Issues in Marketing and Management Essay - 3

Contemporary Issues in Marketing and Management - Essay Example Social media marketing involves attracting attention of products or company through social media. The huge competition among companies in the toys and games industry has resulted in the need for advertising in online sites, making sales and gaining feedback from potential customers (Foo, 2013). The emerging theme allows a company to create innovative web content that is catchy to the people visiting their sites such as facebook, linkedn and twitter. The most attractive sites gain website traffic as a result of consumers visiting the page and recommending it to their friends. Some consumers might share the content on their social network sites in the form of links. Thus, the message about a product, brand, event or company is transferred from one consumer to another. The company with the highest website traffic in the toy and game industry will conduct its marketing activities with minimal expenses since users share the content through the internet and attract other consumers (Report, 2014). In the toys and games industry electronic gadgets play a significant role in enhancing the accessibility and installation of the games application. The users may gain information through the internet and try out the games by downloading the application, which results in online sales. Play time is an essential component of a child's development and growth. Thus, toys and games become part of their upbringing. The kids will request their parents for items that they have heard off either through their friends or advertising.

None Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 7

None - Essay Example Here is another example of a church steeple designed by Perret. Although it features flat faces and a square design, there remain interesting elements throughout the tower beginning with the same sort of simple understated buttresses at the top of the tower. These pull the interest up thanks to their staggered structure, some supporting high while others support low. Although the steeple is made of concrete, Perret introduces a sense of delicacy to the material with intricate lacy patterns running up the faces and throughout other segments of the church. I like the Maison de Georges Braque because it’s one of the few examples I’ve seen of a private home designed in the modern style. It features a concentration of glass and steel as its principle construction components with brick providing the more solid elements of the building at the entrance and along the matching chimneys found at either end. Perret added interest to the building by angling the upper windows in a gentle slope that both allows more light to enter the home as well as allows rain water to naturally slide off, therefore combining function with aesthetics. This is another example of a house designed in the modern style, but it’s only recognizable as a home because of its name. The building retains interest, though, thanks to the creative use of new building materials such as concrete, steel and glass. With its large front windows that span the entire front of the building and two thirds of its lower portion, it seems like a perfect showroom for a store and the optical illusion of the heavy upper story about to crush the airy lower story is interesting. This headquarters for the Navy presents a solid face to the surrounding world, but remains interesting because of its seemingly uneven divisions from top to bottom and its evenly spaced concrete and glass partitions along the sides.

Analysis of Macbeth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Analysis of Macbeth - Essay Example Shakespeare has employed Macbeth as a means to convey his opinion of the way aspiration and guilt affect an individual of weak character. Macbeth may be considered as irreversible evil, though the weakness of his character contrasts with other villains of Shakespeare’s plays including Edmund and Iago in King Lear and Othello respectively in that the latter are strong enough to surmount their own self-doubt and feeling of guilt. â€Å"Probably composed in late 1606 or early 1607, Macbeth [also happens to be] the last of Shakespeare's four great tragedies, the others being Hamlet, King Lear and Othello† (eNotes). Despite being a great warrior, Macbeth is not strong enough to boldly face the psychological consequences of his crime. Macbeth is overcome by guilt and worries before murdering Duncan, so he tends to almost abort the mission but his wife’s objectivity of purposefulness makes him commit the crime. Macbeth says, â€Å"Prithee, peace: I dare do all that may become a man; Who dares do more is none† (Shakespeare 16).

Communitarianism: The Best Political Ideology?

Communitarianism: The Best Political Ideology? Political ideologies have developed over the decades and new political ideologies have been introduced into political theory and philosophy. Communitarianism is a recent development in political ideology that is viewed by many as a criticism of liberalism. It draws on ideas from previous schools of thought. It revolves around the community and the individuals comprising it, rather than the individual being at the center, which is what liberalism emphasizes. Although communitarianism is mainly viewed as a critique of liberalism, it draws similarities from other schools of thought such as conservatism and feminism. This paper will argue that communitarianism is the most suitable ideology for individuals due to its examination of individuals and their freedom through the sense of community in the society. To better show how communitarianism is more suitable, I will examine the context of individuals and communities presented in the communitarian thought and how it differs from the liber al and libertarian sense sense. I will then focus on the libertarian idea of distributive justice and the communitarian critique of it. Lastly, I will examine how communitarianism emphasizes the importance of social responsibility, which other ideologies lack, and how that responsibility achieves freedom and justice for individuals. Lastly, I will show how environmentalism can be advocated through communitarian ideologies. Thus, communitarianism coffers a better and a more improved ideology for individuals compared to other ideologies. First, it is important to address the issue of communitarianism being a school of thought. Communitarianism developed as a criticism to liberalism. Just like conservatism, it deals and identifies itself more through criticisms than with its own established ideals. Several people have argued that this is considered a weakness for communitarianism; that communitarianism fails as an alternative to liberalism, and that it doesnt define itself clearly or sufficiently.  [1]  However, as this paper will show, this is not true. Communitarianism is an ideology on its own, since it offers new ideas through its criticisms of liberalism. Furthermore, Mariam seems to draw from the liberal perspective in saying that there are many forms of communities and it is unclear what form communitarianism promotes.  [2]  This is also similar to a dilemma of communitarianism, which Kenny mentions, of whether communitarianism is an anti-liberal force or not.  [3]  But, unlike liberalism, it does n ot promote a universal ideal that predominates over all. It recognizes the differences in communities and thus depends on a particular society. It is an ideology which depends on particularity, rather than universality. Thus, communitarianism differentiates itself more on what it disagrees with in liberalism rather than proposing a new theory of political philosophy.  [4]   Communitarianism is defined as a philosophy that emphasizes the importance of community in the functioning of political life, in the analysis and evaluation of political institutions, and in understanding human identity and well-being.  [5]  It integrates individuals into political life through a sense of belonging and commitment to their community and the individuals within this community. Individuals are thus considered to be a part of a wider community and not an independent entity existing by themselves. Liberalism, on the other hand, is a doctrine that takes protecting and enhancing the freedom of the individual to be the central problem of politics.  [6]  Liberals believe that governments should exist for the sole purpose of protecting the individuals from harm by other individuals. That should be the sole purpose for the existence of governments, since liberals are skeptic about any forms of government. This is due to the belief that governments of any sort are in them selves a threat to the people and their freedom, which can only be achieved if intervention was kept to a bare minimum and only for fundamental matters that would help promote and maintain individual freedom. From this stems a fundamental difference which is subject to debate: individuals and the government. Liberalism detaches the individual from the government and only considers individuals and how they can maintain their freedom. However, communitarianism criticizes this detachment and instead focuses on a sense of community amongst the people. This community allows for the people and the government to interact in a broader sense. Communitarianism not only criticizes this, but it criticizes the fact that Liberalism, in basing itself on the rights of the individual, has fundamentally misunderstood social life and has produced a political philosophy that is itself the cause of the problems with which we are beset.  [7]  Thus, Liberalism does not create any social order or any sense of a society by basing itself solely on the individual. Liberals and Libertarians have mostly argued for this need to look only at the individual. Right Libertarians (and Nozick in particular) have argued that the government should only use its power to maintain self-ownership rights and to protect individuals property. In The Entitlement Theory of Justice, Nozick argues in his theory of justice, that the holdings of a person are just if he is entitled to them by the principles of justice in acquisition and transfer, or by just rectification of justice.  [8]  Hence, he is critical of Rawlss idea of the redistribution of justice and wealth.  [9]  Nozick believes that anyone who earns something justly should not be held responsible for other individuals. Thus, if all property, for example, ends up with one person, then that does not call for taxation or any action. Furthermore, by using the Wilt Chamberlain example, Nozick shows how equality results into inequality through freedom. This means that people originally start by having complete freedom to make their own choices, but then they choose to give up that freedom. Th us, to redistribute Chamberlains or any justly earned wealth is a violation of peoples rights.  [10]   However, what Nozick is implying is injustice to the individuals themselves. If one person owns everything, then people will be reduced to slaves and work for that one person who owns all the resources, and they will not be free. Communitarians have criticized this libertarian idea of distributive justice and individual rights [because it] works to divide the citizens of the modern state against one another, thereby fostering isolation, alienation, and apathy rather than commitment to a common civic enterprise.  [11]  Thus, the sense of community and the freedom that it entails for the individuals of the society disappears. Libertarianism only focuses on individual rights as being the most important ones, which does not work, especially in pluralistic societies today, which need both individuals and the government to have responsibilities and rights, and not just a focus on one individual who claims they obtained something justly. It is difficult to assess what is just, which is another limitation to Nozicks argument. People can easily claim that they obtained something justly, even if they did not. Thus, a community needs to exist where all individual freedoms are guaranteed, instead of questionable individual rights. Communitarians draw heavily on conservative ideas about the importance of tradition [and society] in providing a coherent framework of values within which we can live.  [12]  Liberalism tends to focus on the individual for the individual and their right, but this is contingent upon cultural factors.  [13]  The society and culture in which individuals are raised in [are] important when determining their autonomy.  [14]  Consequently, Individuals cannot detach themselves from the society, because their individual rights are contingent upon their society and their surroundings. People are bound to society just as they are bound to family. As Finlayson notes of Oakeshott, conservative individuals prefer the familiar to the unknown;  [15]  a society with traditions where people are bound is more familiar than an individualistic society which seeks universalism. Yet, these traditions and values are not always concrete for people to attach themselves to. One evident criticism of conservatism is the fact that people do not always follow their traditions. People can just as easily detach themselves from certain traditions, which themselves are always changing and never remain the same. Fahad criticizes Scrutons argument by stating that one is born with the capacity to run ones own life, and with free will and volition to choose from an ethical or political framework to adhere to.  [16]  The fact that Scruton emphasizes the need for people to follow their society and the traditions as given, leave Scruton unable to even question the very liberalism that serves as the foundation for his ability to construct a philosophy in the first place.  [17]   Scrutons arguments for following the norms of the society are extreme. People are not just programmed to accept everything without questioning it or improving it. However, Fahad seems to argue that people can make their own choices and decisions based on their own free will, which is unlikely. As communitarians argue, people are influenced by their societies, and this influence plays greatly onto the choices that people believe they are making out of their own free will. People can have a freedom of choice, as he points out, however this will not emerge out of nothing. Even though people might think that they are making a purely objective decision, there is always some subjectivity that will come into play. Communitarians draw from the conservative thought the importance of traditions; however, people are not obliged to follow these traditions. They exist to unify the people and create a sense of belonging in the society. Furthermore, they affect the way people make decisions and how they essentially live their lives, as some traditions cannot be eliminated from peoples lives. This draws on Rawlss use of the veil of ignorance. This is an imaginary veil where people are in an original position where they know nothing about anything that defines who they are  [18]  . People are supposed to ignore these ideals and values and focus on remaining neutral and objective in order to make decisions that would benefit all the people. These decisions are supposedly right in that people reach them through rational and selfless thinking. Besides it being a difficult practical concept, it is also flawed. People cannot just assume that they know nothing about their lives and forget everything they are connected to. Their society and ideals will come into play at some point and it will influence their decisions. It is false to assume that a rational decision is a right decision just because it is rational. People cannot be fully rational, they will always have something affecting the way they think, no matter how insignificant it might seem. Therefore, communitarianism stresses on the importance of the society in individuals lives because the society shapes people and many things within the society can easily have an impact on them. Rawlss theory of justice through the veil of ignorance is thus inaccurate, because, as communitarians argue, the standards of justice must be found in forms of life and traditions of particular societies and hence can vary from context to context.  [19]  Furthermore, communitarians see the moral agency of making decisions always existing within the context of a particular structure of traditions and practices, manifested in the life of a community.  [20]   What communitarianism advocates (and conservatism lacks), is open discourse and an emphasis on social responsibility (which liberalism lacks). One way of emphasizing the importance of society for individuals is through the recognition of individuals roles towards their society. For communitarians, the preservation of individual liberty depends on the active maintenance of the institutions of civil society where citizens learn respect for others as well as self-respect.  [21]  This respect would lead to an appreciation of our own rights and the rights of others. Individuals will also obtain civic responsibilities and the development of self-government skills, as well as the habit of governing ourselves, and learn to serve others not just self.  [22]  Governments, too, will have obligationsincluding the duty to be responsive to their members and to foster participation and deliberation in social and political life.  [23]   The communitarian perspective, in a sense, mandates attention to what is often ignored in contemporary policy debates: the social side of human nature.  [24]  This social side shows how individuals and governments both have responsibilities towards each other. It does not only assume that individual rights are important, because as Scruton points out, by enlarging the space around one person it diminishes the space enjoyed by his neighbor.  [25]  It can be seen that communitarianism goes further than the conservative idea of following traditions; it emphasizes on the social aspect of the people and what the people want. It also criticizes the narrowness of liberalism by just assuming that only the individual matter and that the government is there to protect it from injustice only. However, it is not only a one way street; individuals have rights and responsibilities, which is important to realize. A focus is made on individual liberty, but that liberty is achieved with the s ociety, not as liberalism promotes it of being just a focus on one individual.  [26]   One could argue that the notion of civic responsibilities and virtue is that of republicanism. As Kenny points out, communitarianism has some distinctly non-liberal antecedents as well.  [27]  Also, writers of classical republicanism emphasize ideas such as the importance of civic virtue and political participation,  [28]  amongst other ideas. However, civic republicanism stresses the importance of independence from arbitrary power. Ideologies stress on the importance of the individuals being at the center, and the relationship with the polity in terms of rights and responsibilities between the two. However, republicanism draws on more liberal ideas of civic virtue and a polity made by the people. Communitarianism, on the other hand, focuses more on the importance of traditions and values in order to have civic virtue. It focuses more on individuals and their individual and social responsibility, whereas republicanism focuses on individuals responsibility towards other indivi duals only. However, both communitarianism and republicanism stem from an uneasiness with liberalism.  [29]  Both ideologies criticize liberalism for being guilty of an excessive or misguided emphasis on the rights and liberties of the individual that nurtures a socially corrosive form of individualism.'  [30]  Yet, as Dagger points out, how liberalism is flawed and how it should be fixed is what communitarians and republicans disagree not only with each other, but among themselves.  [31]   According to Kenny, Rawlss defines the self through the original position as imagined as the subject of social contract where the original position would serve to strip it from social and cultural attributes.  [32]  Communitarians question this individualistic self and how it can be said to exist prior to or outside social settings and communal attachments.  [33]  The existence of these settings leads to the development of the individual and his objectives. It is only a socially and intersubjectively constituted self [that] can plausibly be said to possess goals.  [34]  What liberals promote is a political society in which there are contracts made by sovereign individuals who are accorded a number of basic rights as well as the right of exit.  [35]  This just separates the individual and the state, with all the benefits going to individuals with nothing to the government. But, individuals, according to liberals, are not free if they do not have the free will to make their own choices, without any effects from the outside. According to Gaus and Courtland, Green mentions that individual is only free if they are self-directed or autonomous.  [36]  Their actions must be their own and not influenced by anything else. That is why Rawls stresses the importance of not including anything in the original position. This is a negative notion of freedom  [37]  , where people can pursue their own ends, and thus do not follow custom.  [38]  Another form of liberal freedom is what Vallentyne echoes of Berlin as negative freedom, to pursue ones interests without harming others through ones fundamental purposes.  [39]  Thus, it can be argued, that if the self was influenced by society, then this influence can limit if from being free. It can for example, constrain someone through certain traditions which might be false. People will thus be shaped by tho se traditions and unable, or unwilling, to break free from them and develop their own. Yet, liberalisms view of freedom, whether positive or negative, is both problematic. In the negative sense, people are allowed to do anything without any consequences or constraints to their actions. Likewise, in the positive sense, people are expected to know when to limit themselves and it is hard to assume all individuals are able to control infividuals. In the communitarian sense, people would have to include some part of their traditions and values to pursue their goals. Sometimes it is even helpful to have some guidance when making decisions. The self is thus, in the communitarian sense, both pluralistic and particularistic: many of the features of persons are shaped by the intersubjective values and traditions of the communities into which they are born.  [40]  Moreover, if traditions are false, people would draw from the surroundings of their environment to develop new beliefs that they believe is right; their own beliefs do not just exist. To illustrate, a community can exist where everyone smokes as a rule. A person who thinks that this tradition is false would refer to the harm it causes to people to develop his own belief. The issue of freedom is also related to multiculturalism. It deals with pluralistic societies, where the population may come from many different cultural backgrounds; and peoples are increasingly asserting their need for a state that recognizes this differentiation.  [41]  Although the self is pluralistic in the communitarian thought, it is hard to claim that these traditions in the community are pluralistic. As Young explains, seeking equality and ignoring differences would allow for the development of cultural imperialism by allowing norms expressing the point of view and experience of privileged groups to appear neutral and universal.  [42]  A view of a group as the other would develop. Although this is a critique towards the liberal idea of universalism and its claim of neutrality, it can also be critically examined through a communitarian perspective. Since communitarians emphasize the importance of traditions and values in a society, it can be difficult to agree on thes e traditions. Besides them being right or wrong, a society is at risk of having the traditions of on group to dominate over it. If, for instance, one community mainly practices one religion, it would be difficult to be neutral or to have the acceptance of the people if the laws and regulations rely on that religion. Thus, there would be no sense of community between the people and the government, but rather a responsibility to abide by laws that were set by a majority. Whether this is intentional by the people or not, it still entails that some would better be able to achieve their capacities than others. Even though communitarianism criticizes the liberal idea of a universalism and neutrality, Youngs argument entails that some groups in society might not be able to fully participate in the public sphere without abiding by the dominant thought. Since communitarianism does not in itself address the issue of multiculturalism and dominance, I believe that this idea of roles by the people and the society would entail that equality would be considered. As Caney would point out, one critique that communitarians make is that there is a meta-ethical claim emphasizing political principles should mirror shared understandings.  [43]  People should take into account the social responsibilities that they have, since it is not a one-way responsibility from the government, which would ensure that there should be some equality. However, Youngs argument is a valid one and is a worry to any political ideology, since in any society; there can always be a majority, regardless of whether it follows liberal or conservative ideologies. However, it is very hard to assess how this should be addressed. She argues that there should be a positive discrimination towards the minority groups. Yet, this is difficult in itself for two reasons. The first is that it is hard to choose which group is a minority. There are many factors like numerical and cultural, for example, that can be taken into account. Thus, there are more minority groups than those which exist today because there are people advocating for those minorities. The second is that where should we stop in giving these minorities rights, or to create one public sphere where are differences are recognizes. In the communitarian sense, some accommodations can be made to try and limit differences between groups. Lastly, the communitarian ideology can offer an argument for environmentalism. As Hayward discusses, environmentalism refers to the belief that environmental protection is a significant ethical, social and political value.  [44]  However, it is often ignored because it is viewed as a discrete [issue] for policy-makers to deal with.  [45]  Yet, from a communitarian perspective, it can be integrated as part of the social responsibility of individuals in relation to ecologism. The ecological argument of humans as a part of nature  [46]  shows how there can be a social responsibility from individuals towards nature because that would ensure that the society they live in is a safe one. However, from a liberal point of view, this responsibility would not exist as individuals would only consider what is best for them, even if that comes at the cost of nature and the environment. In conclusion, communitarianism was originally a critique of liberalism, but it quickly developed to be an ideology with its own unique ideas that are best towards individuals. It looks at individuals as being at the center, but at the same time, it also looks at the community being in that center. Although many of its critiques are towards liberalism and the idea of the individualistic self existing with universal ideals, communitarianism can be critically examined through different ideologies. It focuses on how Individuals and the government coexist together with both having responsibilities and rights that are preserved through the community. It draws on conservative ideas of having a sense of traditions and values that are maintained through the community. These traditions and what shapes people are important to how individuals make decisions in life, which is not done through the liberal objective sense. It also includes individuals into the political life, like republicanism, b ut this involvement is through the sense of the community and what is best for the whole community. Communitarianism also focuses on how individuals can obtain freedom through this interaction with the society, and not just by limiting themselves to their individualistic goals. Hence, communitarianism is the most suitable ideology for individuals because it preserves their freedom and offers a sense of community between all individuals in the society. Word Count: 3730 (with footnotes: 3924).

Edgar Degas :: Essays Papers

Edgar Degas Edgar Degas was a French artist, some people would refer to him as the expert of drawing the human figure in motion. He was known as an Impressionists, and was different from all the other artist of his type. Edgar Degas was a person who, at certain times, brashly defied propriety and common social practice. Although he could be the nicest person, at times he would go into rages during social gatherings, becoming hostile with the people who disagreed with his ways and opinions. Edgar Degas was born on July 19, 1834, at Saint-Georges in Paris. His father was a French banker, and his mother was an American from New Orleans. While Degas was growing up his idol was the painter. He began his artistic studies with Louis Lamothes, a pupil of Ingres. After studying there he moved on and started classes at the Ecole des Beaux Arts. In 1854, he left and went to Italy. For 5 years he stayed there and studied Italian art, mainly works. Edgar Degas was known as an Impressionist. The Impressionist were artist who exhibited their works of art in independent shows from 1874 to 1886. It was the common desire to make an open forum for artist to show their work that united the group. The word "Impressionist" was created by the critic Louis Leroy after seeing paintings in the first Impressionists exhibition in April of 1874. The name that Leroy gave his article in the French periodical was Charivari "Exhibition of the Impressionists" and sarcastically protected the new style of painting that ignored details, bared brushstrokes, and put unblended colors beside each other. Just like most of the French public, Leroy did not take into consideration the works by Claude Monet, Berthe Morisot, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, and Edgar as art that deserved serious attention. In 1859 he returned to Paris. There he painted portraits of family and friends and many historical subjects, where he used both classical and romantic styles. In the late 1860’s he switched to contemporary themes, painting both theatrical scenes and portraits with big emphasis on social and intellectual implications of props and setting. Around 1868 Degas began to get recognized as an artist. During the early 1870’s, the female became Degas’s favorite theme. In his studio he sketched from a live model and put poses together in groupings that illustrated rehearsal and performance scenes. In 1872 he visited some of his relatives in Louisiana, he painted The Cotton Exchange at New Orleans, which is his only picture that was aquired by a museum in his lifetime.

Origins of Psychology and Research Methods Worksheet Essay

Part I: Origins of PsychologyThe seven major perspectives in modern psychology are psychoanalytic, behaviorist, humanist, cognitive, neuroscientific/biopsychological, evolutionary, and sociocultural. Psychoanalytic: The founder of the psychoanalytic school of thought is Sigmund Freud. He believed that many psychological problems result from the conflicts that occur between â€Å"acceptable† behavior and â€Å"unacceptable† unconscious sexual or aggressive motives. His theory was called Psychoanalysis. Freud relied more on deductive reasoning rather than on rigorous research methods, hence making his approach non-scientific. Also, he laid emphasis on the importance of unconscious processes and unresolved past conflicts. Behaviorist: The founder of the behaviorist school of thought is John B. Watson. Behaviorism perspective rejected the notion of the conscious and unconscious mind, but instead focused on the importance of observation and environmental influences on behavior. This school of thought first started with the Pavlov’s â€Å"classical conditioning†, which claimed that behaviors could be learned via conditioned associations Classical conditioning is a learning that occurs by which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response (Feist, 2008, p. 449). Another famous behaviorist, B.F Skinner, believed in the concept of â€Å"operant conditioning†, which demonstrated the effect of punishment and reinforcement on behavior. For instance, He claimed that if a behavior is reinforced, it increases the chances of that behavior to be repeated. Similarly, if a behavior is followed with punishment, the chances of that behavior to repeat itself diminish. Humanist: The two major figures of the humanistic perspective are Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. They believed that all individuals have the natural capacity to move towards self actualization. Also, they emphasized on the notion of free will (voluntarily chosen behavior) and self-actualization (a state of self-fulfillment) (John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2008). Cognitive: Cognitive psychologists are interested in investigating the  thought processes that occur in the brain. Also, they examine how the information is gathered, encoded and stored. Some of the concepts that are studied under cognitive psychology are perception, memory, imagery, concept formation, problem solving, reasoning, decision making, and language. Not only that, cognitive psychologists explain that a human mind works like a computer that sequentially takes in information(gathers), processes it( encodes), and then produces a response, hence called the information-processing approach. Neuroscientific/Biopsychological: This school of thought emphasizes on the role of biological factors on behavior. Psychologists who follow this school of thought explain behavior through the use of genetics and biological processes that occur in the brain. These psychologists combine the biological and the psychological aspects to explain behavior. Evolutionary: This school of thought examines concepts such as natural selection, adaptation, and evolution of behavior and mental processes. Evolutionary psychologists claim that an organism’s reproductive success is determined by the behavior that favors the process of natural selection (John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2008). Sociocultural: This school of thought emphasizes on the role of social interactions and cultural factors that influence behavior. Some factors include ethnicity, religion, occupation, and socioeconomic class and so on. Part II: Research MethodsResearch Methods MethodPurposeStrengthsWeaknessesProvide an exampleExperimentalIdentify cause and effectAllows precise control over variables and identifies cause and effectEthical concerns, practical limitations, artificiality of lab conditions, research and participant biases Manipulation and control of variablesDescriptiveObserve, collect and record data Minimizes artificiality, easier to collect data, allows description of behavior and mental processes as they occurLittle or no control over variables, cannot explain cause and effect, and researcher and participant biasesNaturalistic observation, survey, and case study. CorrelationalIdentify relationships and how well one variable predicts another. Helps clarify relationships between variables that cannot be examined by other methods and allows prediction.Researchers cannot identify cause and effectStatistical analysis of relationship between variables. Biological Identify causation as well as description and predictionShares many or all of the advantages of experimental, descriptive and correctional researchShares many or all of the disadvantages of experimental, descriptive and correctional researchStudies the brain and other parts of the nervous system. Compare and contrast: Experimental and Correlational methods. Experimental research method helps to explain cause and effect whereas the correlational method does not. An experiment comprises of an independent variable (manipulating variable), dependent variable (the variable on which the effect is examined), and experimental and control groups. Also, while conducting an experiment, the researcher must make sure that all the extraneous variables in experimental and control conditions are held constant so that it does not influence the results. Furthermore, the researcher must take into consideration errors (biases) such as experimenter bias, participant bias amongst others that could also influence the results. Also, one of the most important features of an experimental method is making sure that the sample is representative. In other words, representative sample comprises of assigning participants randomly to an experimental and control groups. This procedure of random assignment ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any particular group. Correlation method, on the other hand, does not explain cause and effect. For instance, Correlation method gives us information on whether the variables being studied are related, but it does not provide any information on which variable influence which. For example, If A and B are two variables being studied, correlation method will give us information on whether A and B are related, but it would not tell us whether A causes B or B causes A. This  method is used when researchers want to examine the relationship (Correlation) between variables. This method is analyzed using a correlation coefficient, a numerical value that specifies the degree and direction of the relationship between the two variables. Correlation coefficients range from +1.00 to -1.00, where the sign (positive or negative) denotes the direction of the correlation, and the numerical value (from 0 to +1.00 or -1.00) indicates the strength of the relationship. Both Experimental and correlation are research methods w hich are used to conduct research in psychology. Part III: The Brain Psychologists are interested in studying twins because they want to examine whether traits such as aggression, intelligence, sociability are inherited or are influenced by environment factors. To investigate such issues, the researchers conduct twin studies, as they have a high proportion of shared genes. There are two types of twins: identical and fraternal. Identical twins (monozygotic- one egg) are twins that share 100 percent of the same genes. On the other hand, fraternal twins (dizygotic- two egg) are twins that share approximately 50 percent of their genes, just like any other pair of siblings. Therefore, twin studies provide researchers with a lot of valuable information on the effects of heredity on behavior. For instance, both identical and fraternal twins share the same parents, hence the same environment. So, if heredity does influence a trait or a behavior then identical twins should be more similar than fraternal twins. Also, Researchers are interested in studying families with children who have been adopted because it also gives them valuable information on whether genetic factors play a role in behavior. For instance, if the adopted children are more similar to their biological parents then it can be inferred that heredity does play a role in influencing a trait or a behavior. If on the other hand, the adopted children does not resemble the biological family and instead is more like the adopted family then it can be inferred that environmental factors and not genetics play a role. 1.What are the functions of neurotransmitters and hormones? How do they  influence the brain and behavior?Neurotransmitters help to understand some common medical problems. For instance, some of the neurotransmitters and their functions are listed below:Serotonin has effects on mod, sleep, appetite, sensory perception, temperature regulation, pain suppression, and impulsivity. Acetylcholine (ACh) has effects on muscle action, cognitive functioning, memory, rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep, emotion. Dopamine (DA) has effects on movement, attention, memory, learning, and emotion. Norepinephrine (NE) (or noradrenaline) has effects on earning, memory, dreaming, emotion, waking from sleep, eating, alertness, wakefulness, and reactions to stress. Epinephrine (or adrenaline) has effects on motional arousal, memory storage, and metabolism of glucose necessary for energy release. Hormones are used by endocrine system. Hormones help to control the body’s response to emergencies. For instance, â€Å"in times of crisis, the hypothalamus sends messages through two pathways- the neural system and the endocrine system (primarily the pituitary). The pituitary sends hormonal messages to the adrenal glands, which release release cortisol. Cortisol is a â€Å"stress hormone† that boosts energy and blood sugar levels, epinephrine (commonly called adrenaline), and norepinephrine (John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2008).†2.What is neuroplasticity?Neuroplasticity is at the ability of the human brain to change its structure and function as a result of usage and experience. The human brain is adaptive hence neuroplastic. For example, the neuroplasticity in brain helps us learn a foreign language. References Feist, J., & Feist, G. J. (2008) Theories of Personality (7th ed). New York: McGraw- HillJohn Wiley & Sons Inc.. (2008). Visualizing Psychology (1st ed.). NJ: Author.

The Position of Nicht in German Sentences

The Position of 'Nicht' in German Sentences In German, the position of nicht (not) in a sentence is quite simple and straightforward. You have to keep in mind a few points, and  nicht will fall right into place. Nicht as an Adverb Nicht is an adverb, so you will always find it either before or after a verb, adjective or fellow adverb. It usually precedes an adverb or an adjective, but it likes to settle after conjugated verbs. (So think the opposite of English.) Example: Ich trinke nicht meine Limonade. (Im not drinking my lemonade.) Nicht and Declarative Sentences On the other hand, nicht likes to travel all the way to the end of a sentence at times. This happens most often with declarative sentences. Example A sentence with just a subject and verb:  Sie arbeitet nicht. (She is not working.)  A sentence with a direct object (mir):  Er hilft mir nicht. (He doesnt help me.)   The same applies with simple yes/no questions. For example:  Gibt der Schà ¼ler dem Lehrer die Leseliste nicht? (Is the student not giving the reading list to the teacher?) Nicht and Separable and Compound Verbs With verbs, nicht will bounce around a bit depending on the type of verb.   Nicht will be positioned right before a verb prefix in a sentence containing a separable verb. For example:  Wir gehen heute nicht einkaufen. (We are not going shopping today.)Nicht will be positioned right before an infinitive or infinitives that are part of a verbal combination. For example:  Du sollst nicht schlafen. (You should not sleep.) Another example: Du wirst jetzt nicht schlafen gehen. (You are not going to sleep now.) Nicht and Adverbs of Time The adverbs of time that have chronological logic to them will usually be followed by nicht. These are adverbs such as gestern (yesterday), heute (today), morgen (tomorrow), frà ¼her (earlier), and  spter (later). Example:  Sie ist gestern nicht mitgekommen.  (She did not come along yesterday.) Contrarily, adverbs of time that do not have a chronological logic to them will be preceded by nicht. Example:  Er wird nicht sofort kommen. (He will not come right away.) With all other adverbs, nicht is usually positioned directly before them. Example:  Simone fhrt nicht langsam genug. (Simone doesnt drive slow enough.) Summary of Rules Nicht will usually follow:  Adverbs that can be organized chronologically. Nicht  will usually precede: adverbs of time that cannot be organized chronologicallyall other adverbsverbsseparable verb prefixverb infinitivesadjectivesprepositional phrases

Do you see sexuality as a biological given or Essay Example

Do you see sexuality as a biological given or Essay Example Do you see sexuality as a biological given or Essay Do you see sexuality as a biological given or Essay Make you see gender as a biological given or as a societal building? Critically reflect upon your place. ( 2220/ 2000 ) Introduction In the 19th century biological accounts for gender became ascendent over the old theological 1s ( Kimmel, 2000: 22 ) . In some respects such accounts match our common sense’ apprehension of human gender, for after all is non sexuality finally the concern of biological science and reproduction? However, it is every bit true that the medical professions have played an of import function in the subjugation of homosexualism ( Marshall, 1983: 165 ) . In the first subdivision I explore the biological account of gender, demoing that such an attack is unequal at explicating human gender and the manner that it changes historically. In the 2nd subdivision I examine the statement that gender is in fact a societal building: that gender is learned behavior. In the decision, I sound a note of cautiousness, reasoning that, following Connell ( 2002 ) , what is needed is a manner of speculating gender, and more specifically gender, which includes both the societal and biological dimensions. Sexuality as a Biological Given In this subdivision I explore biological accounts of gender, particularly within depth psychology. An illustration is found in the work of Marie Bonaparte ( in Thompson, 2003 ) . Marie Bonaparte ( 1882-1962 ) , a member of the ( in ) celebrated Bonaparte household, was a patient of Freud in the 1920s and 1930s. Following her analysis she developed a complex, though non needfully coherent ( Thompson, 2003: 366 ) , theory of female gender. For Freud anatomy is destiny ( in Kimmel, 2000: 21 ) , therefore within Freudian depth psychology a woman’s gender is finally the consequence of her deficiency of Phallus ( see Marshall, 1983 ) . [ 1 ] Following Freud, Bonaparte argued that female gender is a consequence of women’s passiveness and biological sensitivity to trouble: †¦woman is biologically doomed to endure [ †¦ ] and she can make nil but submit passively to the government prescribed’ ( Bonaparte in Thompson, 2003: 357 ) . Further, Bonaparte argued that t he manner in which a woman’s anatomy is ordered determines her titillating life: that the intimacy of the button and vagina reflect the androgyny inherent in every woman’ ( Thompson, 2003: 357 ) . For Bonaparte, if a adult female becomes fixated on her button, experience’s clitoric climaxs, she demonstrates her inadaptation to function’ ( Bonaparte in Thompson, 2003: 364 ) , and finally becomes a renouncer’ who abandons hope of happening love ( Thompson, 2003: 35 ) . If she remains fixated on both her button and her vagina, she becomes a claimer’ , and therefore denies world and is caught in a struggle between her sadistic ( male ) and inactive ( female ) gender ( Ibid. p. 364 ) . If she is alternatively fixated on her vagina, she becomes an acceptive’ or a true woman’ as she no longer wants for a phallus, but alternatively wants for a kid ( Ibid. p. 359 ) . A normal’ gender is therefore the consequence of lone vaginal c limax and a desire for kids. For Bonaparte, any account of human gender has as its base the biological reality’ . Such an attack to human gender is non confined to historical beginnings, a speedy study of modern-day psychological science reveals a similar procedure: for illustration a recent article on human gender argues that four differences are apparent between male and female gender: that work forces show more involvement in sex ( Peplau, 2003: 37 ) ; that adult females emphasize committed dealingss as the proper context for sex, whereas work forces are more permissive towards insouciant sex ( Ibid. pp. 37-8 ) ; that aggression plays a larger function in male gender ( Peplau, 2003: 38 ) ; and eventually, that women’s gender is more easy altered by cultural and situational factors ( Ibid. ) . Although this study was based on the respondents ain perceptual experiences, this did non forestall the writer from reasoning that an adequate understanding [ of gender ] may necessitate separate analyses o f gender in adult females and work forces, based on the uniquebiological scienceand life experiences of each sex’ ( Ibid. p. 39, accent added ) . Early on societal scientists relied to a great extent on the usage of science’ to legalize their subjects, and so besides relied on biological accounts ( Kimmel, 2000: 23 ) . However, Emily Martin ( 1991 ) demonstrates that the facts’ of biological science have non merely been interpreted though a cultural lens, these facts have beenmade to suitwith culturally dominant ideals of male and female gender: the egg is perceived to be inactive, the sperm active ( Martin, 1991: 489 ) ; [ 2 ] social imagery’ is mapped onto the gametes, giving them male and female personalities, so as to put a steadfast footing for reimporting precisely that same imagination asnatural accounts of societal phenomena’ ( Ibid. p. 500, accent added ) . Further, if we except such accounts how can we so explain they manner in which gender has changed historically? Relatively recent developments in human gender, such as the development of homosexualism as a signifier of individuality ( Ma rshall, 1983: 167 ) can non be explained by biological science. Finally, whilst our perceptual experience of the sexes is dichotomous, the world of biological science is non: there may really be every bit many as five sexes, including the inter-sexed ( Connell, 2002: 29 ; 36 ) . Such a disparity has led many to see alternatively the societal beginning of both gender and gender. Sexuality as a Social Construction In this subdivision I examine the work of Salvatore Cucchiari ( 1981 ) , who argued that gender must alternatively be seen as a societal building ; that instead than being the consequence of biological science, human gender must be regarded as portion of the societal building of gender’ . Early efforts to explicate gender as a societal building were to be found in sex-role theory, where gender is learned during the procedure of socialisation ( Charles, 2003: 2 ) . Aberrance from normal’ gender, such as homosexualism, would therefore be a consequence of a failure’ in socialisation ( Connell, 1987: 49 in Charles, 2003: 2 ) . By the 1970s, the impact of second-wave feminism had led many theoreticians to situate a differentiation between sex’ and gender’ ( Connell, 2002: 33 ) . Cucchiari ( 1981 ) , pulling on this development, conducted an interesting thought experiment’ in which he attempts to logically infer the development of gender and gender in pre-history. In a complex and disputing article his attack may be divided into cardinal phases: foremost he postulates a crude society without gender dealingss ; next, he imagines how such a society would run: who would look after the kids, who would run etc ; 3rd, he outlines the manner that gender would subsequently develop in such a society. Cucchiari imagines a pre-gender universe which is functionally divided into those who look after the kids ( Child Tenders ) and those who look for nutrient ( Foragers ) ( Cucchiari, 1981: 41 ) . Membership of these groups is unstable, non ascribed, alterations over clip and is democratic and Unitarian ( Ibid. p. 42-50 ) : therefore he imagines aspacial, instead than a sexual, division. In this imagined pre-gender society, gender is both bisexual and unrestrained’ and physical differences between the sexes are unimportant ( Ibid. p.45 ) . Subsequently, as portion of the demand to develop ties with other bisexual hosts, groups begin to interchange kids ( Cucchiari, 1981: 50 ) . Later a crisis develops between the unitarian political orientation [ †¦ ] and the biological dissymmetry or exclusivity of proto-women’s ability to hold and suckle children’ ( Ibid. ) . This is ab initio resolved by consecrating adult females, taking to the hypostatization of the physi cal characteristics associated with reproduction – the chest and genitalias – but finally, as this entails a negative definition of proto-man, [ 3 ] the two functions become reciprocally sole and adult females are no longer worshipped ( Ibid. p. 51 ) . Alternatively, the adult females entirely look after the kids, while the work forces Hunt and competition within gender-related activities – and all activities are now circumscribed by the gender duality – tends to reenforce and lucubrate the very significances of maleness and femininity’ ( Ibid. p. 57 ) : the gender revolution has occurred. Following this gender revolution is thesexualrevolution ; as a consequence of the competition between members of the same sex, work forces as huntsmans and adult females as kid carriers, sexual attraction assumes a new importance ( Ibid. pp. 56-48 ) , and the sex that produces kids,heterosexual sex, becomes more extremely valued and finally requires societal cont rol, or countenances ( Ibid. p. 58 ) . Finally, the exchange of kids easy develops into the exchange of adult females and therefore represents the exercising of laterality by some grownup members of the community over other grownups [ †¦ ] repairing the position of adult females as objects’ ( Ibid. p. 62 ) . Cucchiari’s attack is debatable ; foremost, it is to a great extent reliant on Freudian depth psychology ( Ibid. pp. 46-48 ) , which I discredited earlier for its covert trust on biological science: he posits the development of gender hierarchy as the consequence of asocietaloedipal crisis. However, Cucchiari argues that Freud’s theory allows the possibility that humanity ( past and hereafter ) need non take between the dictatorship of venereal primacy or the lawlessness of childish bisexuality’ , but alternatively take an intermediate sexual form’ : a non-repressive gender ( Cucchiari, 1981: 48 ) . Second, despite his averments that this is a mere thought experiment, he does try to back up his statement with mention to the archeological record ( Ibid. pp. 63-69 ) , so he argues that this procedure occurred in the Upper Palaeolithic period ( 35,000 B.C. to 12,000 B.C ) and is supported by the archeological stuff: The form of symbolic look of gender constructs during this era closely follows that in the theoretical account: an initial phase characterized by a chiseled, extremely specified feminine construct and correspondingly weak masculine representation: a in-between period of amplification in which both gender marks are related to each other in different contexts and mapped onto other sorts of marks: and eventually, toward the terminal of the Upper Palaeolithic, a clear, in writing representation of the Phallus but attendant weak and abstract rendition of female marks ( Ibid. p. 63 ) . This writer is non adequately experienced to judge the cogency of his statement here ; nevertheless, his thought experiment does let us to conceive of a gender-free universe, to see that gender and gender are socially constructed, and so conceive of that sexual and gender equality is possible in the hereafter. Decision In decision, we can see that biological accounts, including those of depth psychology, do non adequately account for human gender. Not merely does gender form our sexual relationships ( Connell, 2002: 143 ) , gender is a portion of the procedure in which gender is socially constructed, so, gender lies at the bosom of any gender system’ ( Cucchiari, 1981: 37 ) . Simone de Beauvior stated that One is non born, but instead becomes, a woman’ ( in Connell, 2002: 4 ) , it might be better to state that one is non born heterosexual/ homosexual/ bisexual, but instead becomes so ; gender is a affair of societal building, non of biological science, and is constructed as portion of the procedure of gender building: Human gender is fictile, non capable to stiff familial or hormonal patterning, but determined by the acquisition and symbolic countries of the brain’ ( Cucchiari, 1981: 38 ) . However, a concluding note of cautiousness is needed: gender is a societal building, but this does non intend that it is free from all the restraints imposed by biological science ; one is non wholly free to build one’s gender any more than one is free to build one’s ain gender. The societal building of both gender and gender is limited by and affects the human organic structure: Bodies can non be understood as merely the objects of societal procedure, whether symbolic or disciplinary. They are active participants in societal process’ ( Connell, 2002: 39-40 ) . The sociology of gender used to be chiefly concerned with the survey of aberrance ( Gamson and Moon, 2004: 47 ) , but queer theory’ is now in danger of situating genders as divorced from the organic structures that pattern them, and therefore sabotaging the part it can do to the wider survey of society. Bibliography Charles, Nickie ( 2003 ) Theorizing Gender’ ,Gender in Modern Britain, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 1-19. Connell, R.W. ( 2002 )Gender, Cambridge: Polity Press. Cucchiari, Salvatore ( 1981 ) The Gender Revolution and the Passage from Bisexual Horde to Partrilocal Band: The Origins of Gender Hierarchy’ ,Sexual Meanings: The Cultural Construction of Gender and SexualitY, Ortner, S and Whitehead, H ( Eds. ) , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 31-79. Gamson, Joshua and Moon, Dawne ( 2004 ) The Sociology of Sexualities: Fagot and Beyond’ ,Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 30, pp. 47-64. Kimmel, Michael S. ( 2000 ) Ordained by Nature: Biology Constructs the Sexes’ ,The Gendered Society, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 21-46. Martin, Emily The Egg and the Sperm: How Science has Constructed a Romance Based on Stereotyped Male-Female Roles’ ,Signs, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 485-501. Marshall, John ( 1983 ) The Medical Profession’ ,Prejudice and Pride: Discrimination against Gay People in Modern Britain, London: Routledge, pp. 165-193. Peplau, Letitia ( 2003 ) Human Sex: How do Men and Women Differ? ’ ,Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 37-40. Thompson, Nellie L. ( 2003 ) Marie Bonaparte s Theory of Female Sexuality: Fantasy and Biology’ ,American Imago, Vol. 60, No. 3, pp. 343-378. 1

Egyptian political history( Prehistory-1500) Research Paper

Egyptian political history( Prehistory-1500) - Research Paper Example It established a political organization structure early in time to serve its people and delegated roles for its future prosperity. Military force protected the empires and performed the orders of the kings. Records also show that Egypt expanded its authority over the empires it conquered and made certain alliances with other empires to fight their enemies. The political power was initially inherited by the royal family, which formed the sequence of establishing a monarchy based government that controlled the economic activities of the empire. Monarchical Governments The ancient Egyptian government was a form of monarchy and theocracy. Precisely, the kings were said to rule by divine decree and if lucky to keep the empire together, the power to rule was inherited by members with the royal blood. However, there are instances where the women became queens and situations where the leadership was taken away by the conquering dynasties. According to the ICR (6), for about three millennia, that is 3150 to 31BCE when the Roman Empire took the territories of Egypt, Pharaohs ruled ancient Egypt. Pharaohs occupied the top position of the social hierarchies and ruled with absolute power. Pharaohs as political and religious leaders would rule till their death, when their heirs inherited the throne. Some heirs would take the responsibility quite early in age, and sometimes where there were no princes, the royal women could be married off to a royal person in the linage, to make bear heirs of the throne and ensure no power was spilled outside the royal family. Some of the lady Pharaohs comprised of Hatshepsut and CleopatraVII, while male rulers were Akhenaten who passed down the thrown to his son king Tun (Tunankhamun at age 9). They exercised their powers without hardship, because the people had already accepted them as their gods, or mediators to the gods, as well as their associated immeasurable power that they used to command the people, head their military, and make crit ical decisions when required. The reign of the Pharaohs can be divided into 3 kingdoms according to the periods (2700 to 2200 BCE) Old Kingdom, (2052 to 1786 BCE) Middle Kingdom, and (1575 to 1087 BCE) the new Kingdom, in which the numerous Egyptian dynasties were established (Connors et al 22). Some rulers strived to accomplish the objectives of their former rulers as they defended their dynasties through the militaries, brought political and economic stability and prosperity, unified the Egyptians after the conquests, unrests, and riots. Political Structure The political organization and command of power was centered with the supreme authority that rested on the Pharaohs. Although there were subordinates to the royal power, the kings’ decision was final at any required situation. Some kings ruled through their heirs, making it possible to oversee and maintain order within the entire Egypt territory. According to Kaplan, the government of ancient Egypt looked like the struct ure of a pyramid with respect to the division of power; such that the king was at the top, and beneath him a pool of workers that varied in the ranks (13). The king, though an individual with enough power to make a decision that would affect the lives of the people, had a team of elite or royal people who acted as his advice council and could at times influence his decisions. The viziers as the executive heads of bureaucracy occupied the powerful

Discussion Board 5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Discussion Board 5 - Essay Example The Washington Times, p. 1. Retrieved July 7, 2006, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001572892 sexually assaulted her, and the woman offered evidence in the way of a bite mark and DNA from certain articles of clothing. Because of Mr. Albert’s celebrity status, the case was closely followed by the public and much attention was given to the use of the forensic evidence, especially the bite mark left on the victim. Cases involving celebrities are often sensationalized by the media, perhaps giving more credibility to certain forensic evidence than is warranted, when in actuality forensic evidence such as bite marks, fingerprints, palm prints and lip prints should not alone be evidence enough to convict a person of a serious crime, especially a crime involving the death penalty. An article by Molly Burton and Donna Lyons, appearing in State Legislatures (2001), stated â€Å"Back in the 1970s, the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) did proficiency tests of crime lab hair comparisons, bite marks, serology, these types of things. They knew they were getting it wrong like fifty percent of the time. It was terrible. And then that sort of analysis disappeared with the LEAA (p. 1).† What Burton and Lyons are suggesting, is that each of these sources of evidence are, first, subject to lab error and one should not infer from the results of a test using these sources that the information stemming from the tests is infallible. Alone these sources of evidence should not be enough to cause a person to be convicted of a major crime, especially one that carries the penalty of death. â€Å"Fraudulent and junk science is a critical, critical area,† write Burton and Lyons, â€Å"Forensic science has not always been the discipline that the best pe ople in the profession want it to be (p. 1).† One case that brought attention to the infallibility of fingerprint evidence was an